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Literature Review on Innovative Silviculture and Management Practices Supportive of Conservation Values

Click to go to the Table of Contents

Reference List

Topic Areas:

  1. Landscape management for biodiversity and wildlife responses
  2. Spatial forest management reviews & concepts -under multiple objectives
  3. Spatial forest management, optimization methods, harvest scheduling with wildlife constraints and case studies
  4. Old-forest characteristics
  5. The 1996 landmark - Washington Forest Landscape Management Project

 

1.  Landscape management for biodiversity and wildlife responses

Abbott, R. S., J. D. White, et al. (1999). "The Benefits and Challenges of Large-scale Silvicultural Experiments: Perspectives from Forest Managers on the Demonstration of Ecosystem Management Options(DEMO) Study." Northwest Science 73: 118-125.

Acker, S. A., T. E. Sabin, et al. (1998). "Development of old-growth structure and timber volume growth trends in maturing Douglas-fir stands." Forest Ecology and Management 104(1): 265-280.

Adams, W. T., S. Hobbs, et al. (2005). "Intensively managed forest plantations in the Pacific Northwest: Introduction." Journal of Forestry: 59.

Adams, W. T., J. Zuo, et al. (1998). "Impact of alternative regeneration methods on genetic diversity in coastal Douglas-fir." Forest Science 44(3): 390-396.

Agee, J. K. (1991). "Fire history of Douglas-fir forests in the Pacific Northwest." Wildlife and vegetation of unmanaged Douglas-fir forests. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Gen. Tech. Report PNW-GTR-285: 25-33.

Agee, J. K. (1996). Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests, Island Press.
Allen, A. W., W. Energy, et al. (1983). Habitat Suitability Index Models: Southern Red-backed Vole (western United States), Western Energy and Land Use Team, Division of Biological Services, Research and Development, Fish and Wildlife Service, US Dept. of the Interior.

Allen, C.D., Savage, M., Falk, D.A., Suckling, K.F., Swetnam, T.W., Schulke, T., Stacey, P.B., Morgan, P., Hoffman, M., Klingel, J.T., 2002. "Ecological restoration of southwestern ponderosa pine ecosystems: a broad perspective. " Ecological applications 12, 1418-1433.

Amaranthus, M. P., D. DeBell, et al. (1993). Demonstration of Ecosystem Management Options (D.E.M.O.):  A cooperative effort between NFS and research in the Pacific Northwest. SE-GTR 88 USDA Forest Service Southern Experiment Station.

Anderson, P.D., 2007. "Understory vegetation responses to initial thinning of Douglas-fir plantations undergoing conversion to uneven-age management" In: Deal, R.L. (Ed.), Integrated restoration of forested ecosystems to achieve multiresource benefits: proceedings of the 2007 national silviculture workshop. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-733, Ketchikan, AK.

Andren, H. (1992). "Corvid Density and Nest Predation in Relation to Forest Fragmentation: A Landscape Perspective." Ecology 73(3): 794-804.
Andren, H. (1994). "Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Birds and Mammals in Landscapes with Different Proportions of Suitable Habitat: A Review." Oikos 71(3): 355-366.

Andren, H. (1996). "Population Responses to Habitat Fragmentation: Statistical Power and the Random Sample Hypothesis." Oikos 76(2): 235-242.

Andren, H. (1999). "Habitat Fragmentation, the Random Sample Hypothesis and Critical Thresholds." Oikos 84(2): 306-308.

Andrén, H. (1997). "Habitat fragmentation and changes in biodiversity." Ecological Bulletins 46: 171-181.

Andren, H. and P. Angelstam (1988). "Elevated Predation Rates as an Edge Effect in Habitat Islands: Experimental Evidence." Ecology 69(2): 544-547.

Andren, H. and A. Delin (1994). "Habitat Selection in the Eurasian Red Squirrel, Sciurus vulgaris, in Relation to Forest Fragmentation." Oikos 70(1): 43-48.

Andrews, L. S. and J. P. Perkins (2005). "Silvicultural approaches to develop northern spotted owl nesting sites, Central Coast ranges, Oregon." Western Journal of Applied Forestry 20(1): 13-27.

Arno, S.F., Fiedler, C.E., 2005 Mimicking Nature's fire: restoring fire-prone forests in the West. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Askins, R. A. and M. J. Philbrick (1987). "Effect of changes in regional forest abundance on the decline and recovery of a forest bird community." Wilson Bulletin 99(1): 7-21.

Askins, R. A., M. J. Philbrick, et al. (1987). "Relationship between the regional abundance of forest and the composition of forest bird communities." Biological Conservation 39(2): 129-152.

Aubry, K. B. (2007). "Changing Perceptions of the Role of Managed Forests as Wildlife Habitat in the Pacific Northwest." USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW 695: 3.

Aubry, K. B., M. P. Amaranthus, et al. (1999). "Evaluating the Effects of Varying Levels and Patterns of Green-tree Retention: Experimental Design of the DEMO Study." Northwest Science 73: 12-26.

Aubry, K. B., C. B. Halpern, et al. (2004). "Ecological effects of variable-retention harvests in the northwestern United States: the DEMO study." Forest Snow and Landscape Research 78(1/2): 119-137.

Bailey, J. D., C. Mayrsohn, et al. (1998). "Understory Vegetation In Old And Young Douglas-R Forests Of Western Oregon." Forest Ecology and Management 112, 289-302.

Bailey, J. D. and J. C. Tappeiner (1998). "Effects Of Thinning On Structural Development In 40-To 100-Year-Old Douglas-Fir Stands In Western Oregon." Forest Ecology and Management 108, 99-113.

Bailey, S. (2007). "Increasing connectivity in fragmented landscapes: an investigation of evidence for biodiversity gain in woodlands. " Forest Ecology and Management 238, 7-23.

Baker, P. J. and J. S. Wilson (2000). "A quantitative technique for the identification of canopy stratification in tropical and temperate forests." Forest Ecology and Management 127(1-3): 77-86.

Baker, S.C., Barmuta, L.A., McQuillan, P.B., Richardson, A.M.M., (2007). "Estimating edge effects on ground-dwelling beetles at clearfelled non-riparian stand edges in Tasmanian wet eucalypt forest. " Forest Ecology and Management 239, 92-101.

Barbour, R. J., S. Johnston, et al. (1997). "Simulated stand characteristics and wood product yields from Douglas-fir plantations managed for ecosystem objectives. " Forest Ecology and Management 91(2): 205-219.

Barg, A. K. and D. P. Hanley (2001). Silvicultural Alternatives: Variable Retention Harvests in Forest Ecosystems of Western Washington: a Guide for Forest Landowners, Cooperative Extension, Washington State University.

Battaglia, M.A., Mou, P., Palik, B., Mitchell, R.J. (2002). "The effect of spatially variable overstory on the understory light environment of an open-canopied longleaf pine forest". Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32, 1-8.

Bayne, E. M. and K. A. Hobson (1997). "Comparing the Effects of Landscape Fragmentation by Forestry and Agriculture on Predation of Artificial Nests." Conservation Biology 11(6): 1418-1429.

Bayne, E. M. and K. A. Hobson (1998). "The effects of habitat fragmentation by forestry and agriculture on the abundance of small mammals in the southern boreal mixedwood forest." Can. J. Zool 76(1): 62–69.

Bebber, D. P., S. C. Thomas, W. G. Cole, and D. Balsillie.  2004. "Diameter increment in mature eastern white pine Pinus strobus L. following partial harvest of old-growth stands in Ontario", Canada. Trees 18:29–34.

Beese, W. J. and A. A. Bryant (1999). "Effect of alternative silvicultural systems on vegetation and bird communities in coastal montane forests of British Columbia, Canada." Forest Ecology and Management 115(2): 231-242.

Beggs, L. R., K. J. Puettmann, et al. (2005). "Vegetation Response to Alternative Thinning Treatments in Young Douglas-fir Stands." USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW 635: 243.

Begon, M., C. R. Townsend, et al. (2003). Ecology: individuals, populations and communities, Blackwell Science.

Bender, D. J., T. A. Contreras, et al. (1998). "Habitat Loss and Population Decline: A Meta-Analysis of the Patch Size Effect." Ecology 79(2): 517-533.

Berg, D. R., T. K. Brown, et al. (1996). "Silvicultural systems design with emphasis on the forest canopy." Northwest Science 70: 31-36.

Berryman, S. D., R. T. Fahey, et al. (2005). "Characterizing understory vegetation response to variable density thinnings in young Dougls-fir forests of western Oregon." Balancing Ecosystem Values: Innovative Experiments for Sustainable Forestry, Portland, OR. available at: http://ocid. nacse. org/nbii/density/pdfFiles/PosterA_Characterizing_understory _veg_response. pdf.

Bevers, M. and J. Hof (1999). "Spatially optimizing wildlife habitat edge effects in forest management linear and mixed-integer programs." Forest science 45(2): 249-258.

Bible, K. J. (2001). Long-term patterns of Douglas-fir and western hemlock mortality in the western Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon, University of Washington.

Bladon, K. D., V. J. Lieffers, U. Silins, S. M. Lanhausser, and P. V. Blenis. (2008). "Elevated mortality of residual trees following structural retention harvesting in boreal mixedwoods. " Forestry Chronicle 84:70–75.

Bond, B. J. and J. F. Franklin (2002). "Aging in Pacific Northwest forests: a selection of recent research." Tree Physiology 22(2): 73-76.

Bormann, F. H. and G. E. Likens (1994). Pattern and Process in a Forested Ecosystem: Disturbance, Development and the Steady State Based on the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study, Springer-Verlag.

Bottorff, J. (2007). "Wildlife habitat management practices on private non-industrial forestlands." USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW 695: 62-64.

Boulinier, T., J. D. Nichols, et al. (2001). "Forest Fragmentation and Bird Community Dynamics: Inference at Regional Scales." Ecology 82(4): 1159-1169.

Boutin, S. and D. Hebert (2002). "Landscape Ecology and Forest Management: Developing an Effective Partnership." Ecological Applications 12(2): 390-397.

Bragg, D.C., Shelton, M.G., Guldin, J.M., (2008). "Restoring old-growth southern pine ecosystems: strategic lessons from long-term silvicultural research. " In: Deal, R.L. (Ed.), Integrated restoration of forested ecosystems to achieve multiresource benefits: proceedings of the 2007 National Silviculture Workshop. PNW-GTR-733. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.

Brandeis, T. J., M. Newton, et al. (2001). "Underplanted conifer seedling survival and growth in thinned Douglas-fir stands." Can. J. For. Res 31: 302-312.

Brockway, D.G., Outcalt, K.W., Guldin, J.M., Boyer, W.D., Walker, J.L., Rudolph, D.C., Rummer, R.B., Barnett, J.P., Jose, S., Nowak, J., (2002). "Uneven-aged management of longleaf pine forests: a scientist and manager dialogue. "  USDA Forest Service General Technical Report SRS-78, Southern Research Station, Asheville, NC.

Brodie, A., M. Bowering, et al. (2007). "Combining management goals of wildlife habitat conservation and revenue on Washington state trusts." USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW 695: 67-80.

Brosofske, K.D., Chen, J., Naiman, R.J., Franklin, J.F., (1997). "Harvesting effects of microclimatic gradients from small streams to uplands in western Washington. " Ecological applications 7, 1188-1200.

Bull, E.L., Blumton, A.K., (1999). "Effect of fuels reduction on American martens and their prey. " In. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.  PNW-RN-539, Portland, OR.

Bull, E.L., Clark, A.A., Shepherd, J.F., 2005. "Short-term effects of fuel reduction on pileated woodpeckers in northeastern Oregon- a pilot study".. In. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Res. Pap. PNW-RP-564.  Portland, OR.

Bunnell, F. L. and L. L. Kremsater (1990). "Sustaining wildlife in managed forests." Northwest Environmental Journal 6(2): 243-269.

Bunnell, F. L., L. L. Kremsater, et al. (1999). "Managing to sustain vertebrate richness in forests of the Pacific Northwest: relationships within stands." Environmental Reviews 7(3): 97-146.

Burkey, T. V. (1989). "Extinction in Nature Reserves: The Effect of Fragmentation and the Importance of Migration between Reserve Fragments." Oikos 55(1): 75-81.

Busing, R. T. and S. L. Garman (2002). "Promoting old-growth characteristics and long-term wood production in Douglas-fir forests." Forest Ecology and Management 160(1): 161-175.

Carey, A. B. (1995). "Sciurids in Pacific Northwest Managed and Old-Growth Forests." Ecological Applications 5(3): 648-661.

Carey, A. B. (1996). "Interactions of northwest forest canopies and arboreal mammals." Northwest Science 70: 72-79.

Carey, A. B. (1998). "Ecological Foundations of Biodiversity: Lessons from Natural and Managed Forests of the Pacific Northwest." Northwest Science 72(2): 127-133.

Carey, A. B. (1999). Ecological Scale and Forest Development: Squirrels, Dietary Fungi, and Vascular Plants in Managed and Unmanaged Forests, Wildlife Society.

Carey, A. B. (2000). "Effects of New Forest Management Strategies on Squirrel Populations." Ecological Applications 10(1): 248-257.

Carey, A. B. (2003). "Restoration of landscape function: reserves or active management?" Forestry 76(2): 221.

Carey, A.B., (2003). "Biocomplexity and restoration of biodiversity in temperate coniferous forest: inducing spatial heterogeneity with variable-density thinning. " Forestry 76, 127-136.

Carey, A. B. and R. O. Curtis (1996). "Conservation of Biodiversity: A Useful Paradigm for Forest Ecosystem Management." Wildlife Society Bulletin 24(4): 610-620.

Carey, A. B. and W. Dept. of Fish and (1996). Washington Forest Landscape Management Project: A Pragmatic, Ecological Approach to Small-landscape Management: Report No. 2, Washington State Dept. of Natural Resources, Washington Forest Landscape Management Project.

Carey, A. B. and J. D. Gill (1983). "Direct habitat improvements—some recent advances." Snag Habitat Management: Proceedings of a Symposium. General Technical Report RM-99. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO; 80–87.

Carey, A. B., S. P. Horton, et al. (1992). "Northern Spotted Owls: Influence of Prey Base and Landscape Character." Ecological Monographs 62(2): 223-250.

Carey, A. B. and M. L. Johnson (1995). "Small Mammals in Managed, Naturally Young, and Old-Growth Forests." Ecological Applications 5(2): 336-352.

Carey, A. B., B. R. Lippke, et al. (1999). "Intentional systems management: managing forests for biodiversity." Journal of Sustainable Forestry 9(3/4): 83-125.

Carey, A. B. and H. R. Sanderson (1981). "Routing to Accelerate Tree-Cavity Formation." Wildlife Society Bulletin 9(1): 14-21.

Carey, A. B., D. R. Thysell, et al. (1999). The Forest Ecosystem Study Background, Rationale, Implementation, Baseline Conditions, and Silvicultural Assessment, US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

Carey, A. B. and S. M. Wilson (2001). "Induced Spatial Heterogeneity in Forest Canopies: Responses of Small Mammals." The Journal of Wildlife Management 65(4): 1014-1027.

Ceder, K. R. (2002). Using Silviculture to Sustain Wildlife Habitat: Assessing Changes and Trade-offs in Forest Habitats Using a Habitat Evaluation Procedure within the Landscape Management System. College of Forest Resources. Master of Science: 76. Seattle, WA, University of Washington.

Ceder, K. R. and J. M. Marzluff (2002). Linking tools of forest and wildlife managers: Wildlife habitat evaluation using the Landscape Management System. Forest Vegetation Simulator (FVS) Conference, Fort Collins, CO, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Chambers, C. L., R. Carrigan, et al. (1997). "Use of artificially created Douglas-fir snags by cavity-nesting birds. West." J. Appl. For 12: 93-97.

Chambers, C. L., W. C. McComb, et al. (1999). "Breeding Bird Responses to Three Silvicultural Treatments in the Oregon Coast Range." Ecological Applications 9(1): 171-185.

Chan, S.S., Larson, D.J., Maas-Hebner, K.G., Emmingham, W.H., Johnston, S.R., Mikowski, D.A., (2006). "Overstory and understory development in thinned and underplanted Oregon Coast Range Douglas-fir stands. " Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36, 2696-2711.

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Chen, J. (1991). Edge effects: microclimatic pattern and biological responses in old-growth Douglas-fir forests, University of Washington.

Chen, J., J. F. Franklin, et al. (1996). "Comparison of Abiotic and Structurally Defined Patch Patterns in a Hypothetical Forest Landscape." Conservation Biology 10(3): 854-862.

Chen, J., J. F. Franklin, et al. (1990). "Microclimatic pattern and basic biological responses at the clearcut edges of old-growth Douglas-fir stands." Northwest Environmental Journal 6: 424-425.

Chen, J., J. F. Franklin, et al. (1992). "Vegetation Responses to Edge Environments in Old-Growth Douglas-Fir Forests." Ecological Applications 2(4): 387-396.

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Cissel, J. H., F. J. Swanson and P. J. Weisberg (1999). "Landscape management using historical fire regimes: Blue River, Oregon." Ecological Applications 9: 1217-1231.

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Curtis, R. O. and A. B. Carey (1996). "Timber supply in the Pacific Northwest: managing for economic and ecological values in Douglas-fir forests." Journal of Forestry 94(9): 4-7.

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Roberts, S.D., Harrington, C.A., Buermeyer, K.R. (2007). "Does variable-density thinning increase wind damage in conifer stands on the Olympic Peninsula." Western Journal of Applied Forestry 22, 285-296.

Roberts, S.D., Harrington, C.A. (2008). "Individual tree growth response to variable-density thinning in coastal Pacific Northwest forests." Forest Ecology and Management 255, 2771-2781.

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Robinson, S. K., F. R. Thompson Iii, et al. (1995). "Regional Forest Fragmentation and the Nesting Success of Migratory Birds." Science 267(5206): 1987.

Rochelle, J. A., L. Lehmann, et al. (1999). Forest fragmentation, Brill.

Rohweder, M. R., C. W. McKetta, et al. (2000). "Economic and Biological Compatibility of Timber and Wildlife Production: An Illustrative Use of Production Possibilities Frontier." Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(2): 435-447.

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Rose, C. R. and P. S. Muir (1997). "Green-Tree Retention: Consequences for Timber Production in Forests of the Western Cascades, Oregon." Ecological Applications 7(1): 209-217.

Rosenwald, R., Lohmus, A. (2008). "For what, when, and where is green-tree retention better than clear-cutting?  A review of the biodiversity aspects." Forest Ecology and Management 255, 1-15.

Rudnicky, T. C. and M. L. Hunter Jr (1993). "Avian Nest Predation in Clearcuts, Forests, and Edges in a Forest-Dominated Landscape." The Journal of Wildlife Management 57(2): 358-364.

Rudolph, D. C. and R. N. Conner (1996). "Red-Cockaded Woodpeckers and Silvicultural Practice: Is Uneven-Aged Silviculture Preferable to Even-Aged?" Wildlife Society Bulletin 24(2): 330-333.

Ruggiero, L. F., K. B. Aubry, et al. (1991). Wildlife and Vegetation of Unmanaged Douglas-fir Forests, US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

Sallabanks, R., E. B. Arnett, et al. (2000). "An Evaluation of Research on the Effects of Timber Harvest on Bird Populations." Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(4): 1144-1155.

Saunders, D. A., R. J. Hobbs, et al. (1991). "Biological Consequences of Ecosystem Fragmentation: A Review." Conservation Biology 5(1): 18-32.

Schowalter, T.D., Zhang, Y.L., Rykken, J.J. (2003). "Litter invertebrate responses to variable density thinning in western Washington forest." Ecological Applications 13, 1204-1211.

Schulte, P. J. (2006). "Water flow through junctions in Douglas-fir roots." Plant, Cell & Environment 29(1): 70-76.

Scott, R. E. and S. J. Mitchell (2005). "Empirical modelling of windthrow risk in partially harvested stands using tree, neighbourhood, and stand attributes." Forest Ecology and Management 218(1/3): 193-209.

Sessions, J., G. Reeves, et al. (1997). Implementing spatial planning in watersheds. Washington, D.C., Island Press.

Settings, M. (2007). "Biodiversity Management in Pacific Northwest Forests: Strategies and Opportunities.-Selected Papers from the conference on" Managing Biodiversity in Pacific Northwest Forests", Portland, Oregon, June 5-7, 2006." Forest Ecology and Management 246(1): 108-122.

Sharitz, R.R., Boring, L.R., Van Lear, D.H., Pinder, J.E.I. (1992). "Integrating ecological concepts with natural resource management of southern forests". Ecological applications 2, 226-237.

Sharpe, F. (1996). "The biologically significant attributes of forest canopies to small birds." Northwest Science 70: 86-93.

Shaw, D. C. and K. Bible (1996). "An overview of forest canopy ecosystem functions with reference to urban and riparian systems." Northwest Science 70: 1-6.

Shepperd, W.D., Battaglia, M.A. (2002). Ecology, silviculture, and management of Black Hills ponderosa pine.  General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-97. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO.

Snider, G., Daugherty, P.J., Wood, D. (2006). "The irrationality of continued fire suppression: an avoided cost analysis of fire hazard reduction treatments versus no treatment". Journal of Forestry 104, 431-437.

Song, B. (1998). Three-dimensional forest canopies and their spatial relationships to understory vegetation, Michigan Technological University.

Song, B., J. Chen, et al. (1997). "Modeling canopy structure and heterogeneity across scales: From crowns to canopy." Forest Ecology and Management 96(3): 217-229.

Spies, T. A. (1998). "Forest Structure: A Key to the Ecosystem." Northwest Science 72(special issue 2): 34-39.

Spies, T. A. and J. F. Franklin (1988). "Old growth and forest dynamics in the Douglas-fir region of western Oregon and Washington." Natural Areas Journal 8(3): 190-201.

Spies, T. A. and J. F. Franklin (1991). "The structure of natural young, mature, and old-growth Douglas-fir forests in Oregon and Washington." USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR. Portland (OR): Pacific Northwest Research Station: 91–109.

Spies, T. A. and J. F. Franklin (1996). "The diversity and maintenance of old-growth forests." Biodiversity in managed landscapes. Oxford University Press, New York, New York, USA: 296-314.

Spies, T. A., J. F. Franklin, et al. (1988). "Coarse Woody Debris in Douglas-Fir Forests of Western Oregon and Washington." Ecology 69(6): 1689-1702.

Spies, T. A., W. J. Ripple, et al. (1994). "Dynamics and Pattern of a Managed Coniferous Forest Landscape in Oregon." Ecological Applications 4(3): 555-568.

Spies, T. A. and M. G. Turner (1999). "Dynamic forest mosaics." Maintaining Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK: 95-160.

Stuart-Smith, A. K., J. P. Hayes, et al. (2006). "The influence of wildfire, logging and residual tree density on bird communities in the northern Rocky Mountains." Forest Ecology and Management 231(1-3): 1-17.

Styskel, E. W. (1983). "Problems in snag management implementation—a case study." Davis, Jerry W.; Goodwin, Gregory A.; Ockenfels, Richard A., technical coordinators. Snag habitat management: proceedings of the symposium: 7-9.

Suzuki, N. and J. P. Hayes (2003). "Effects of Thinning on Small Mammals in Oregon Coastal Forests." The Journal of Wildlife Management 67(2): 352-371.

Szacki, J., J. Babinska-Werka, et al. (1993). "The influence of landscape spatial structure on small mammal movements." Acta Theriologica 38(2): 113-123.

Szaro, R. C. and C. E. Peterson (2004). "Evolving approaches toward science-based forest management." Forest Snow and Landscape Research 78(1/2): 9-20.

Szaro, R. C., C. E. Peterson, et al. (2004). "Creating a legacy for sustainable science-based forest management: lessons learned from field experiments." Papers from the IUFRO conference Applied forest ecological experiments, Davos, Switzerland, 5-7 August 2003. Forest Snow and Landscape Research 78(1/2): 208pp.

Szaro, R. C., C. E. Peterson, et al. (2006). "Operational experiments for sustainably managing forests (Grossflächige Feldversuche für die nachhaltige Waldnutzung)." Allgemeine Forst und Jagdzeitung 177 (6/7):98-104 Special Issue

Tabor, J., McElhinny, C., Hickey, J., Wood, J. (2007). "Colonisation of clearfelled coupes by rainforest tree species from mature mixed forest edges, Tasmania, Australia". Forest Ecology and Management 240, 13-23.

Talbert, C. and D. Marshall (2005). "Plantation productivity in the Douglas-fir region under intensive silvicultural practices: results from research and operations." Journal of Forestry 103(2): 65-70.
Tang, S. M., J. F. Franklin, et al. (1997). "Forest harvest patterns and landscape disturbance processes." Landscape Ecology 12(6): 349-363.

Tappeiner, J. C. (1989). "Early establishment and vegetative growth of understory species in the western hemlock- Sitka spruce forests of southeast Alaska." CanJ. Bot./J. Can. Boot. 67(1): 318-326.

Tappeiner, J. C., D. Huffman, et al. (1997). "Density, ages, and growth rates in old-growth and young-growth forests in coastal Oregon." Can. J. For. Res 27(5): 638-648.

Tappeiner, J. C., D. Lavender, et al. (1997). "Silvicultural systems and regeneration methods: current practices and new alternatives." Creating a forestry for the 21st century: the science of ecosystem management. Edited by Kathryn A. Kohm and Jerry F. Franklin. Island Press, Washington: 151–164.

Tappeiner, J. C. and J. C. Zasada (1993). "Establishment of salmonberry, salal, vine maple, and bigleaf maple seedlings in the coastal forests of Oregon." Can. J. For. Res./Rev. can. rech. for 23(9): 1775-1780.

Tarp, P., F. Helles, et al. (2000). "Modelling near-natural silvicultural regimes for beech: an economic sensitivity analysis." Forest ecology and management 130: 187-198.

Taulman, J. F., K. G. Smith, et al. (1998). "Demographic and Behavioral Responses of Southern Flying Squirrels to Experimental Logging in Arkansas." Ecological Applications 8(4): 1144-1155.

Taylor, P. D., L. Fahrig, et al. (1993). "Connectivity Is a Vital Element of Landscape Structure." Oikos 68(3): 571-573.

Thomas, J. W. (1979). Wildlife habitats in managed forests: the Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington, Wildlife management institute, US Department of inetrior Bureau of Land Management.

Thomas, J. W., J. F. Franklin, et al. (2006). "The Northwest Forest Plan: Origins, Components, Implementation Experience, and Suggestions for Change." Conservation Biology 20(2): 277-287.

Thomas, S. C., C. B. Halpern, et al. (1999). "Plant Diversity in Managed Forests: Understory Responses to Thinning and Fertilization." Ecological Applications 9(3): 864-879.

Thompson, J. (2007). "Mountain meadows—here today, gone tomorrow? Meadow science and restoration." Science Findings (94) June 2007: 1-5

Thorpe, H.C., Thomas, S.C., Caspersen, J.P. (2008). "Tree mortality following partial harvests is determined by skidding proximity". Ecological Applications 18, 1652-1663.

Thorpe, H. C., and S. C. Thomas. (2007). "Partial harvesting in the Canadian boreal: success will depend on stand dynamic responses". Forestry Chronicle 83:319–325.

Thorpe, H. C., S. C. Thomas, and J. P. Caspersen. (2007). "Residual-tree growth responses to partial stand harvest in the black spruce (Picea mariana) boreal forest". Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37:1563–1571. 

Thysell, D. R., A. B. Carey, et al. (2000). Effects of Forest Management on Understory and Overstory Vegetation a Retrospective Study, US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

Tóth, S. F. and M. E. McDill (2007). "Promoting Large, Compact Mature Forest Patches in Harvest Scheduling Models." Environmental Modeling and Assessment: 1-15.

Tóth, S. F., M. E. McDill, et al. (2006). "Finding the Efficient Frontier of a Bi-Criteria, Spatially Explicit, Harvest Scheduling Problem." Forest Science 52(1): 93.

Trzcinski, M. K., L. Fahrig, et al. (1999). "Independent Effects of Forest Cover and Fragmentation on the Distribution of Forest Breeding Birds." Ecological Applications 9(2): 586-593.

University of Washington College of Forest Resources (2007). "Timber Supply and Forest Structure" in The Future of Washington's Forests and Forestry Industries. University of Washington, Seattle, WA: 518.

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service (1980). "Habitat evaluation procedures (HEP)." USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 102.

USDA Forest Service. (2001). Sierra Nevada forest plan amendment. Final environmental impact statement. San Francisco, CA, UDSA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region.

Van Der Meer, P.J., Dignan, P., Savaneh, A., (1999). "Effect of gap size on seedling establishment, growth and survival at three years in mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell.) forest in Victoria, Australia". Forest Ecology and Management 117, 33-42.

Van Pelt, R. and J. F. Franklin (2000). "Influence of canopy structure on the understory environment in tall, old-growth, conifer forests." Can. J. For. Res 30: 1231-1245.

Van Pelt, R. and M. P. North (1996). "Analyzing canopy structure in Pacific Northwest old-growth forests with a stand-scale crown model." Northwest Science 70: 15-30.

Van Pelt, R. and M. P. North (1999). "Testing a ground-based canopy model using the Wind River Canopy Crane." Selbyana 20: 357-362.

Verboom, B. and H. Huitema (1997). "The importance of linear landscape elements for the pipistrelle Pipistrellus pipistrellus and the serotine bat Eptesicus serotinus." Landscape Ecology 12(2): 117-125.

Villard, M. A. and P. D. Taylor (1994). "Tolerance to habitat fragmentation influences the colonization of new habitat by forest birds." Oecologia 98(3): 393-401.

Villard, M. A., M. K. Trzcinski, et al. (1999). "Fragmentation Effects on Forest Birds: Relative Influence of Woodland Cover and Configuration on Landscape Occupancy." Conservation Biology 13(4): 774-783.

Wauters, L., P. Casale, et al. (1994). "Space Use and Dispersal of Red Squirrels in Fragmented Habitats." Oikos 69(1): 140-146.

Wegner, J. F. and G. Merriam (1979). "Movements by Birds and Small Mammals Between a Wood and Adjoining Farmland Habitats." The Journal of Applied Ecology 16(2): 349-357.

White, C.G., Schweitzer, S.H., Moore, C.T., Parnell, I.B., Lewis-Weis, L.A., (2005). "Evaluation of the landscape surrounding northern bobwhite nest sites: a multiscape analysis". Journal of Wildlife Management 69, 1528-1537. 

Wiegand, J. F., R. W. Haynes, et al. (1994). High quality forestry workshop: The idea of long rotations. Special Paper 15. Seattle, WA, University of Washington College of Forest Resouces Center for International Trade in Forest Products.

Wielgus, R.B., Vernier, P.R., (2003). "Grizzly bear selection of managed and unmanaged forests in the Selkirk Mountains". Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33, 822-829. 

Wilson, D.S., Puettmann, K.J., (2007). "Density management and biodiversity in young Douglas-fir forests: challenges of managing across scales". Forest Ecology and Management 246, 123-134.

Wilson, J. S. and C. D. Oliver (2000). "Stability and density management in Douglas-fir plantations." Can. J. For. Res 30(6): 910-920.         

Wilson, S. M. and A. B. Carey (2000). "Legacy Retention Versus Thinning: Influences on Small Mammals." Northwest Science 74(2): 131-145.

Winter, L. E., L. B. Brubaker, et al. (2002). "Initiation of an old-growth Douglas-fir stand in the Pacific Northwest: a reconstruction from tree-ring records." Canadian Journal of Forest Research/Revue Canadienne de Recherche Forestiere 32(6): 1039-1056.

With, K. A. and T. O. Crist (1995). "Critical Thresholds in Species' Responses to Landscape Structure." Ecology 76(8): 2446-2459.

With, K. A. and A. W. King (1999). "Extinction Thresholds for Species in Fractal Landscapes." Conservation Biology 13(2): 314-326.

Witting, L. and V. Loeschcke (1995). "The optimization of biodiversity conservation." Biological Conservation 71(2): 205-207.

Woodruff, D. R., B. J. Bond, et al. (2002). "Effects of stand density on the growth of young Douglas-fir trees." Canadian Journal of Forest Research/Revue Canadienne de Recherche Forestiere 32(3): 420-427.

Zenner, E. K. (2000). "Do Residual Trees Increase Structural Complexity in Pacific Northwest Coniferous Forests?" Ecological Applications 10(3): 800-810.

Zenner, E. K. (2004). "Does old-growth condition imply high live-tree structural complexity?" Forest Ecology and Management 195(1/2): 243-258.

Zenner, E.K. (2005). "Development of tree size distributions in Douglas-fir forests under differing disturbance regimes". Ecological Applications 15, 701-714.

Zobrist, K. W., K. R. Gehringer, et al. (2004). "Templates for sustainable riparian management on family forest ownerships." Journal of Forestry 102(7): 19-25.

Zobrist, K. W. and T. M. Hinckley (2005). A literature review of management practices to support increased biodiversity in intensively managed Douglas-fir plantations. Seattle, WA, Rural Technology Initiative: 14.

2.  Spatial forest management reviews & concepts -under multiple objectives

Baskent, E. Z. and G. A. Jordan (1995). "Characterizing spatial structure of forest landscapes." Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 25(11): 1830-1849.

Baskent, E. Z. (1997). "Assessment of structural dynamics in forest landscape management." Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 27(10): 1675-1684.

Baskent, E. Z. and S. Keles (2005). "Spatial forest planning: A review." Ecological Modelling 188(2-4): 145-173.

Bettinger, P. and J. Sessions (2003). "Spatial forest planning - To adopt, or not to adopt?" Journal of Forestry 101(2): 24-29.

Bettinger, P. and W. Chung (2004). "The key literature of, and trends in, forest-level management planning in North America, 1950-2001." International Forestry Review 6(1): 40-50.

Collinge, S. K. (1996). "Ecological consequences of habitat fragmentation: Implications for landscape architecture and planning." Landscape and Urban Planning 36(1): 59-77.

Kurttila, M. (2001). "The spatial structure of forests in the optimization calculations of forest planning - a landscape ecological perspective." Forest Ecology and Management 142(1-3): 129-142.

Seymour, R.S., White, A.S., deMaynadier, P.G. (2002). "Natural disturbance regimes in northeastern North America- evaluating silvicultural systems using natural scales and frequencies". Forest Ecology and Management 155, 357-367.

Weintraub, A. and A. T. Murray (2006). "Review of combinatorial problems induced by spatial forest harvesting planning." Discrete Applied Mathematics 154(5): 867-879

 

3.  Spatial forest management, optimization methods, harvest scheduling with wildlife constraints and case studies

Arthaud, G. J. and D. W. Rose (1996). "A methodology for estimating production possibility frontiers for wildlife habitat and timber value at the landscape level." Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 26(12): 2191-2200.

Azevedo, J. C. M., S. B. Jack, et al. (2000). "Functional heterogeneity of forest landscapes and the distribution and abundance of the red-cockaded woodpecker." Forest Ecology and Management 127(1-3): 271-283.

Baskent, E. Z. (1997). "Assessment of structural dynamics in forest landscape management." Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 27(10): 1675-1684.

Baskent, E. Z. (1999). "Controlling spatial structure of forested landscapes: a case study towards landscape management." Landscape Ecology 14(1): 83-97.

Baskent, E. Z. and G. A. Jordan (1995). "Characterizing spatial structure of forest landscapes." Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 25(11): 1830-1849.

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Hummel, S., Barbour, R.J. (2007). "Landscape silviculture for late-successional reserve management". In: Powers, R.F. (Ed.), Restoring fire-adapted ecosystems: proceedings of the 2005 national silviculture workshop. Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service. PSW-GTR-203, Albany, CA.

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Hynynen, J., A. Ahtikoski, et al. (2005). "Applying the MOTTI simulator to analyse the effects of alternative management schedules on tiber and non-timber production." Forest Ecology and Management 207: 5-18.

Imaki, H. (2007) Optimizing timber harvest revenue with wildlife constraints for old-forest species using a spatially explicit habitat model and open source GIS. Master of Science thesis. University of Washington, Seattle. 119 pp.

Jaeger, J. and R. Holderegger (2005). "Thresholds of landscape fragmentation." GAIA-Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 14(2): 113-118.

Jones J. G., Mneghin B. J., Kirby M. W. (1991) "Formulating adjacency constraints in linear optimization models for scheduling projects in tactical planning" Forest Science 37(5): 1283-1297

Juutinen, A., E. Mantymaa, et al. (2004). "A cost-effective approach to selecting forest stands for conserving species: A case study from northern Fennoscandia." Forest Science 50(4): 527-539.

Kremsater, L. L. and F. L. Bunnell (19991). Edges: Theory, evidence, and implications to management of western forsts. Forest Franmentation: Wildlife and Management Implications.

J. A. Rochelle, L. A. Lehmann and J. Wisniewski. Leiden, Netherlands, Brill: 117-153.

Kroll, A. J. and J. B. Haufler (2006). "Development and evaluation of habitat models at multiple spatial scales: A case study with the dusky flycatcher." Forest Ecology and Management 229(1-3): 161-169.

Kurttila, M. (2001). "The spatial structure of forests in the optimization calculations of forest planning - a landscape ecological perspective." Forest Ecology and Management 142(1-3): 129-142.

Kurttila, M., T. Pukkala, et al. (2002). "The performance of alternative spatial objective types in forest planning calculations: a case for flying squirrel and moose." Forest Ecology and Management 166: 245-260.

Lande, R. (1993). "Risks of population extinction from demotraphic and environmental stochasticity and random catastrophes." American Naturalist 142: 911-927.

Larsen, E. W., E. H. Girvetz, et al. (2007). "Landscape level planning in alluvial riparian floodplain ecosystems: Using geomorphic modeling to avoid conflicts between human infrastructure and habitat conservation." Landscape and Urban Planning 79(3-4): 338-346.

Larson, M. A., F. R. Thompson, et al. (2004). "Linking population viability, habitat suitability, and landscape simulation models for conservation planning." Ecological Modelling 180(1): 103-118.

Li, H. B., J. F. Franklin, et al. (1993). "Developing alternative forest cutting patterns: A simulation approach." Landscape Ecology 8(1): 63-75.

Li, H. B., D. I. Gartner, et al. (2000). "A landscape model (LEEMATH) to evaluate effects of management impacts on timber and wildlife habitat." Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 27(1-3): 263-292.

Liu, J. G., F. W. Cubbage, et al. (1994). "Ecological and economic-effects of forest landscape structure and rotation length - simulation studies using ECOLECON." Ecological Economics 10(3): 249-263.

Lloyd, P., T. E. Martin, et al. (2005). "Linking demographic effects of habitat fragmentation across landscapes to continental source-sink dynamics." Ecological Applications 15(5): 1504-1514.

Loehle, C., P. Van Deusen, et al. (2006). "A method for landscape analysis of forestry guidelines using bird habitat models and the Habplan harvest scheduler." Forest Ecology and Management 232(1-3): 56-67.

Lu, F., L. O. Eriksson (2000) “Formation of harvest units with genetic algorithms.” Forest Ecology and Management 130 (1-3): 57-67.

Malcolm, J. R., B. D. Campbell, et al. (2004). "Potential indicators of the impacts of forest management on wildlife habitat in northeastern Ontario: A multivariate application of wildlife habitat suitability matrices." Forestry Chronicle 80(1): 91-106.

Marzluff, J. M., J. J. Millspaugh, et al. (2002). "Modeling changes in wildlife habitat and timber revenues in response to forest management." Forest Science 48(2): 191-202.

Marzluff, J. M., M. G. Raphael, et al. (2000). "Understanding the effects of forest management on avian species." Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(4): 1132-1143.

McCarter, J. B., J. S. Wilson, et al. (1988). "Landscape management through integration of existing tools and emerging technologies." Journal of Forestry 96: 17-23.

McDill M.E, J. Braze J. (2000). “Comparing Adjacency Constraint Formulations for Randomly Generated Forest Planning Problems with Four Age-Class Distributions ” Forest Science 46(3): 423-436.

McGrath, M. T., S. DeStefano, et al. (2003). "Spatially explicit influences on northern goshawk nesting habitat in the interior Pacific Northwest." Wildlife Monographs(154): 1-63.

McKenzie, D. and C. B. Halpern (1999). "Modeling the distributions of shrub species in Pacific northwest forests." Forest Ecology and Management 114(2-3): 293-307.

McLaren, B. E., S. P. Mahoney, et al. (2000). "Spatial and temporal patterns of use by moose of pre-commercially thinned, naturally-regenerating stands of balsam fir in central Newfoundland." Forest Ecology and Management 133(3): 179-196.

Miller, G. W. and J. Sullivan (1997). "Model for multi-stand management based on structural attributes of individual stands." Forest Ecology and Management 96(3): 261-271.

Moore, C. T. and M. J. Conroy (2006). "Optimal regeneration planning for old-growth forest: Addressing scientific uncertainty in endangered species recovery through adaptive management." Forest Science 52(2): 155-172.

Moore, C. T., M. J. Conroy, et al. (2000). "Forest management decisions for wildlife objectives: system resolution and optimality." Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 27(1-3): 25-39.

Moore, J. E. and R. K. Swihart (2005). "Modeling patch occupancy by forest rodents: Incorporating detectability and spatial autocorrelation with hierarchically structured data." Journal of Wildlife Management 69(3): 933-949.

Morris, D. W. (2003). "How can we apply theories of habitat selection to wildlife conservation and management?" Wildlife Research 30(4): 303-319.

Murphy, D. D. and B. R. Noon (1992). "Integrating scientific methods with habitat conservation planning - reserve design for northern spotted owls." Ecological Applications 2(1): 3-17.

Murray, A. T. (1998). "Ecosystem management or infeasible guidelines? Implications of adjacency restrictions for wildlife habitat and timber production." Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 28(7): 1093-1094.

Murray, A. T. and R. L. Church (1995). "Heuristic Solution Approaches To Operational Forest Planning Problems." Or Spektrum 17(2-3): 193-203.

Murray, A. T. and R. L. Church (1995). "Measuring The Efficacy Of Adjacency Constraint Structure In Forest Planning-Models." Canadian Journal Of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 25(9): 1416-1424.

Nalle, D. J., J. L. Arthur, et al. (2005). "Economic impacts of adjacency and green-up constraints on timber production at a landscape scale." Journal of Forest Economics 10(4): 189-205.

Nalle, D. J., J. L. Arthur, et al. (2002). "Designing compact and contiguous reserve networks with a hybrid heuristic algorithm." Forest Science 48(1): 59-68.

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Nelson, J. D., S. T. Finn (1991) “The influence of cut-block size and adjacency rules on harvest levels and road networks.” Canadian Journal of Forest Research 21(5): 595-600.

Oregon Secretary of State (2002) Oregon Administrative Rules Department of Forestry, Division 665, Specified resource site protection rules, 629-665-0210(1)(a).

Polasky, S., E. Nelson, et al. (2005). "Conserving species in a working landscape: Land use with biological and economic objectives." Ecological Applications 15(4): 1387-1401.

Prather, J. W., N. L. Dodd, et al. (2006). "Landscape models to predict the influence of forest structure on tassel-eared squirrel populations." Journal of Wildlife Management 70(3): 723-731.

Radeloff, V. C., D. J. Mladenoff, et al. (2006). "Modeling forest harvesting effects on landscape pattern in the Northwest Wisconsin Pine Barrens." Forest Ecology and Management 236(1): 113-126.

Ransome, D. B. and T. P. Sullivan (2003). "Population dynamics of Glaucomys sabrinus and Tamiasciurus douglasii in old-growth and second-growth stands of coastal coniferous forest." Canadian Journal of Forest Research/Revue Canadienne de Recherche Forestiere 33(4): 587-596.

Rempel, R. S. and C. K. Kaufmann (2003). "Spatial modeling of harvest constraints on wood supply versus wildlife habitat objectives." Environmental Management 32(5): 646-659.

Ribe, R. G. (2006). "Perceptions of forestry alternatives in the US Pacific Northwest: Information effects and acceptability distribution analysis." Journal of Environmental Psychology 26(2): 100-115.

Richards, E. W., E. A. Gunn (2000) “A model and Tabu search method to optimize stand harvest and road construction schedules : Introduction to Spatial Modeling in Forest Management and Natural Resource Planning Reserve Site Selection” Forest Science 46(2): 188-203.

Richards, E. W., E. A. Gunn (2003) “Tabu search design for difficult forest management optimization problems.“ Can. J. For. Res. 33(6): 1126–1133.

Riitters, K. H., R. V. Oneill, et al. (1997). "Assessing habitat suitability at multiple scales: A landscape-level approach." Biological Conservation 81(1-2): 191-202.

Rohweder, M. R., C. W. McKetta, et al. (2000). "Economic and biological compatibility of timber and wildlife production: an illustrative use of production possibility frontier." Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(2): 435-447.

Russell, W. H. and C. Jones (2001). "The effects of timber harvesting on the structure and composition of adjacent old-growth coast redwood forest, California, USA." Landscape Ecology 16(8): 731-741.

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Sessions, J. (1992). "Solving For Habitat Connections As A Steiner Network Problem." Forest Science 38(1): 203-207.

Seto, K. C., E. Fleishman, et al. (2004). "Linking spatial patterns of bird and butterfly species richness with Landsat TM derived NDVI." International Journal Of Remote Sensing 25(20): 4309-4324.

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Snyder, S., C. ReVelle (1997) “Dynamic Selection of Harvests with Adjacency Restrictions: The SHARe Model.” Forest Science 43(2): 213-222.

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Toth, S. F., M. E. McDill, et al. (2006). "Finding the efficient frontier of a bi-criteria, spatially explicit, harvest scheduling problem." Forest Science 52(1): 93-107.

Twedt, D. J., W. B. Uihlein, et al. (2006). "A spatially explicit decision support model for restoration of forest bird habitat." Conservation Biology 20(1): 100-110.

Van Deusen, P. C. (2001). "Scheduling spatial arrangement and harvest simultaneously." Silva Fennica 35(1): 85-92.

van Langevelde, F., A. Schotman, et al. (2000). "Competing land use in the reserve site selection problem." Landscape Ecology 15(3): 243-256.

Van Raffe, J. K. (2000). "Tactic: a decision support system for forest management planning." Computer and Electoronics in Agriculture.

Varghese, A. O. and Y. Murthy (2006). "Application of geoinformatics for conservation and management of rare and threatened plant species." Current Science 91(6): 762-769.

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Wei, Y. and H. M. Hoganson (2006). "Spatial information for scheduling core area production in forest planning." Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 36(1): 23-33.

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Weintraub, A., R. L. Church, A. T. Murray, M. Guignard. (2000) “Forest management models and combinatorial algorithms: analysis of state of the art.” Annals of Operations Research 96(1-4) 271-285.

Weintraub, A. and A. T. Murray (2006). "Review of combinatorial problems induced by spatial forest harvesting planning." Discrete Applied Mathematics 154(5): 867-879.

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4.  Old-forest characteristics

Baker, P.J., and J.S. Wilson. (2000). "A quantitative technique for the identification of canopy stratification in tropical and temperate forests". Forest Ecology and Management 127:77-86. 

Carey, A.B., B.R. Lippke, J. Sessions. (1999). "Intentional Systems Management: Managing Forests for Biodiversity". Journal of Sustainable Forestry 9(3/4):83-125.

Carey, A.B., C.E. Eliot, B.R. Lippke, J. Sessions, C.J. Chambers, C.D. Oliver, J.F. Franklin, and M.G. Raphael. (1996). Washington Forest Landscape Management Project – A Pragmatic, Ecological Approach to Small Landscape Management. Report No. 2 USDA Forest Service, Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife and Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, Washington. 99pp.

Commission on Old Growth Alternatives for Washington’s Forest Trust Lands. (1989). Final Report submitted to the Commissioner of Public Lands. Olympia, Washington. 40pp. plus appendices.

Crookston, N.L., & Stage, A.R. (1999). Percent canopy cover and stand structure statistics from the forest vegetation simulator. General Technical Report 24. Ft. Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station. 11pp.

D'Amato, A.W., Orwig, D.A., Foster, D.R., (2008). "The influence of successional processes and disturbance on the structure of Tsuga canadensis forests". Ecological Applications 18, 1182-1199. 

DNR. (2005). Definition and Inventory of Old Growth Forests on DNR-Managed State Lands. Olympia, Washington. 21pp. plus appendices.

DNR. (1997). Final Habitat Conservation Plan. Washington State Department of Natural Resources. Olympia, Washington. 223pp. plus appendices.

Esseen, P.A., Renhorn, K.E., Pettersson, R.B. (1996). "Epiphytic lichen biomass in managed and old-growth boreal forests: effect of branch quality". Ecological Applications 6, 228-238.

Everett, R., D. Baumgartner, P. Ohlson and R. Schellhaas.  (2008). "Structural classes and age structure in 1860 and 1940 reconstructed fir-pine stands of eastern Washington".  Western North American Naturalist. 68 (3): 278-290.

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